Richard is a student in sociology at the University. He favours behaviour such as reading, meditating, creative writing, and composing music, compared to his fl at mate, Martin, who prefers to spend most of his time with his circle of friends.
According to Jung’s type trait theory of personality, Richard would best be described as an:
A. Jung introduced the terms extraversion and introversion. He believed that people had different attitudes towards life in general. According to Jung, an extravert is primarily interested in the world of external objects, as depicted by Martin, who wants to be in the company of his friends. An introvert is mostly interested in what goes on within his own mind. Jung thought that both attitudes were necessary for a full comprehension of reality. Indeed, a number of people are what Jung referred to as ambiverts, but people are usually one-sided and tended to one or other extreme. The other concepts introduced by Jung include the concept of the collective unconscious, archetypes, animus, anima, and the shadow. Constitutional psychology is a theory, developed in the 1940s, by American psychologist William Herbert Sheldon. He associated body types with temperament. He divided people into three types: ectomorphs (ectoderm–skinny), mesomorphs (mesoderm–muscle), and endomorphs (gut–fatty). As such, Sheldon thought these body types correspond to certain temperaments that fi t quite closely to popular stereotypes of the modern day. For the ease of recall—‘the skinny nerd’ (ectomorph), ‘the jolly fat man’ (endomorph), ‘the slow-witted tough guy’ (mesomorph). Most scientists consider this theory to be outdated.
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Jim is an 80-year-old man who leads a retired life with his wife Sarah. He had been a postman till he retired at the age of 60. He raised two children who are successful engineers and have families of their own. Looking back at his life, he gets a sense of fulfillment and feels that he can face approaching death with a sense of acceptance.
According to Erikson, what trait does he have?
C. According to Erikson, older people may look back on their lives with a sense of panic and a feeling that time is running out and chances are used up. This can lead to anxiety disorders. A decline in physical function can contribute to various psychosomatic illness, hypochondriasis, and depression. People who are facing death may fi nd it intolerable not to have been generative or had significant attachments in life. Integrity, according to Erikson, is characterized by an acceptance of life. Without this acceptance people feel a sense of despair, leading to severe depression and suicide in some cases. Generativity is the stage prior to the stage of integrity, between 40 and 65, failure of which leads to stagnation. Intimacy stage is seen between 20 and 40 years, where significant relationships are acquired. A failure of this stage leads to isolation. Identity versus role confusion is seen in the teen years, leading up to 20, during which the individual develops a sense of self.
Non-directiveness, unconditional positive regard, active listening, and empathy are features of a psychotherapeutic technique originated by Carl Rogers.
Which of the following therapies do these terms represent?
B. Carl Rogers believed that people are born with a capacity to direct themselves towards a level of completeness called self-actualization. Rogers viewed personality as a dynamic phenomenon, which involves communications, relationships, and self-concepts and which changes regularly. He developed a treatment programme called client-centred psychotherapy. Here the therapist helps the client to achieve their self-actualization by producing an atmosphere conducive to it. The therapist holds the clients with unconditional positive regard, accepting him/her for what he/she is. He encouraged active listening, empathy, and non-directiveness, all principles which have been adopted by mainstream psychiatry. Other therapeutic practices include attention to the present, focus on clients’ feelings, emphasis on process, trust in the potential and self-responsibility of clients, and a philosophy grounded in a positive attitude toward them, rather than a preconceived structure of treatment.
The ABCD system of emotional self-control is a feature of which of the following therapies?
E. Rational emotive behaviour therapy was first developed by Albert Ellis, an American psychologist, in the 1950s. It can be considered one of the fi rst forms of cognitive behaviour therapy. The therapy is based on the concept of how people’s view of various events can affect the consequences. Typically, a situation (antecedent or A), triggers certain beliefs (B) about A. These beliefs, which are usually dysfunctional, lead to certain behavioural and emotional consequences (C), which are again dysfunctional.
A (antecedent) → B (Beliefs) → Consequences (C)
The therapy is directed towards identifying these faulty beliefs and disputing (D) these beliefs. These steps are not very dissimilar from cognitive behaviour therapy, developed by Aaron Beck a decade later.
Behavioural activation can be used as a method of treating depression. In behavioural activation, one’s day is structured with certain activities consistent with the intended positive outcome.
Which of the following is the major component of activity scheduling?
E. Behavioural activation is a treatment for depression developed by Martell. It is now delivered largely as a part of other behavioural and cognitive psychotherapies for depression. Behavioural activation involves the development of activity scheduling; the main focus of activity scheduling is the use of avoided activities as a guide for daily scheduling and functional analysis of cognitive processes that involve avoidance.
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